Chapter 28

Fourth Section: Motives for Proclaiming Jihad on All Fronts during the Era of the Rightly-Guided Caliphate. Introduction to the issues covered in this research. First Issue: Historical snapshots of the Jihad of the Companions during the era of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, and the causes that prompted them. 1. The Persian front. 2. The Roman (Byzantine) front. 3. The front of Egypt and Nubia. 4. The North African front. 5. The Cyprus front. Second Issue: What has been stated regarding the motives for proclaiming Jihad on all fronts during the era of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, according to Islamic writers. - Motives according to Colonel Muhammad Faraj. - Motives according to Omar Rida Kahhala. - Motives according to Sheikh Ali al-Tantawi. - Motives according to Dr. Wahba al-Zuhayli. ¶

Summary of the motives mentioned by Islamic writers: 1. The economic motive. 2. The political motive. 3. The preventive and defensive motive. 4. The humanitarian motive. 5. The liberationist motive. 6. The religious motive. ¶

Third Issue: Our perspective on the motives for declaring Jihad during the Rashidun era, based on the official statements issued, the negotiations that took place, and the treaties concluded with the confronting states. ¶

- Facts for evaluating the aforementioned motives based on these premises: First Fact: The three options offered before declaring Jihad are evidence that its primary motive is the Islamic Call (Da'wah). Second Fact: The distinction between a motive towards something and the utilization of that thing to achieve other purposes. Third Fact: The motive for any activity undertaken by the state is the fundamental purpose the state seeks to achieve, not the purposes sought by some of those whom the state employs in that activity. ¶

1. Discussion of the economic motive. 2. Discussion of the political motive. 3. Discussion of the preventive and defensive motive. 4. Discussion of the humanitarian motive. 5. Discussion of the liberationist motive. ¶

- What we conclude from the discussion of the previous motives. 542 ¶

Section Four: Motivations for Declaring Jihad on All Fronts During the Era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. Introduction to the issues covered in the research. We have structured this research under the chapter on the legitimacy of jihad because the military actions undertaken by the Companions during this era, driven by various motives and never disputed by any of them, constitute proof of their legitimacy. This is because the consensus (ijma) of the Companions is a source of Islamic legislation, as established in the principles of jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh). Furthermore, the title of the research we are addressing points to two specific points: First, the mobilization of the Companions in this era for jihad on all fronts. Second, the existence of specific motives behind that jihad which encompassed all fronts. Consequently, we shall proceed in addressing this research by focusing on three issues: The First Issue: Reviewing examples mentioned in historical sources regarding the wars that took place between the Companions and their enemies, and the underlying causes that led to them. The Second Issue: What has been stated regarding the causes of the Companions' wars with their enemies by Islamic scholars. The Third Issue: Deriving the motives for declaring jihad during the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate on all fronts, based on the reality of official statements issued, negotiations that took place in this regard, and treaties concluded with the confronting states. ¶

First Issue: Historical manifestations of the Jihad of the Sahaba during the Rashidun era, and the underlying causes that led to them. In this issue, we will review some historical accounts regarding the wars we are addressing, as they appear in historical sources. We will present them using the original text, while restricting ourselves to the necessary portions for the sake of brevity, so that we may obtain a sufficient—albeit not exhaustive—conception of what was transpiring on all battlefronts along the borders of the Islamic state. 1. The Persian Front: These are excerpts from 'Tarikh al-Tabari' regarding the events and meetings that took place on the eastern front between the armies of the Islamic Da'wah and the armies of the Persian Empire. It is recorded in history that when Khalid ibn al-Walid finished the Wars of Apostasy (Ridda), Abu Bakr al-Siddiq ordered him to march to Iraq. When he arrived at 'al-Hirah', its leaders came out to receive him, among them 'Abd al-Masih ibn Amr'. Regarding this meeting, it is stated: 'Khalid said to Abd al-Masih: ...Are you for peace or war? He replied: For peace. Then Khalid said to them: I invite you to Allah, to His worship, and to Islam. If you accept, then you have the same rights as we do and the same obligations as we do. If you refuse, then the Jizya (poll tax). If you refuse that, I have come to you with a people who love death just as you love drinking wine! They replied: We have no need for war with you. Thus, he made peace with them for one hundred and ninety thousand dirhams; this was the first Jizya brought to Medina from Iraq.' It is also recorded in history: 'Khalid wrote to Hormuz... and Hormuz was the governor of the frontier at that time: To proceed: Accept Islam and you will be safe, or acknowledge (the status of) Dhimmah for yourself and your people, and agree to pay the Jizya, otherwise...' ¶

Do not blame anyone but yourselves, for I have come to you with a people who love death as you love life.” It is narrated that when the letter of Khalid reached Hormuz, he gathered his troops. He was one of the worst rulers of that frontier (faraj) bordering the Arabs, and all the Arabs were enraged by him. They even used him as a proverb for wickedness, saying, “More wicked than Hormuz, and more disbelieving than Hormuz.” The Persians were defeated, and the Muslims pursued them until nightfall. Khalid and his commanders did not disturb the peasants in any of their conquests due to the prior instruction of Abu Bakr regarding them. Thus, Khalid stayed at al-Thani, taking the families of the fighters as captives while confirming the peasants in their positions. Whoever among the people accepted to pay the jizya (tribute) after being invited to do so, their agreement was accepted, they returned to their lands, became dhimmis, and their lands remained theirs.” ¶

- It is also stated in history: “Khalid stood before the people and gave a sermon, encouraging them toward the lands of the Persians and expressing disdain for the lands of the Arabs. He said, ‘Do you not see that the food here is as abundant as a pile of earth? By God, even if we were not obligated to perform jihad for the sake of Allah and to call people to Allah the Almighty, and if it were only a matter of sustenance, our opinion would be that we should fight for this fertile land so that we might be more entitled to it, and leave hunger and scarcity to those who have held back from what you are engaged in.’” ¶

- It is also narrated that Khalid ibn al-Walid wrote the following letter to the Persian leaders: “In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. From Khalid ibn al-Walid to the kings of Persia: To proceed, all praise is due to Allah who has shattered your order, weakened your plotting, and divided your unity. Enter into our command, and we shall leave you and your land, and pass on to others besides you! Otherwise, it shall happen, while you are unwilling, by force, at the hands of a people who love death as you love life.” ¶

- It is also recorded in history: “The first thing Umar did was to urge the people to join al-Muthanna ibn Haritha al-Shaybani against the Persians, before the dawn prayer, on the very night that Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, passed away, and then morning broke.” ¶

Then the people gave their pledge of allegiance, and he (Umar) once again called the people to jihad in Persia. Every day he would summon them, but no one would volunteer for Persia, as the Persian front was one of the most dreaded for them due to the power and might of the Persians. Then, Muthanna ibn Haritha spoke, saying: 'O people, do not let this front appear formidable to you. We have already settled in the rural lands of Persia, we have overcome them in the best parts of the Sawad (fertile lands of Iraq), we have divided their spoils, gained from them, and those of us present have become bold against them. And, God willing, what lies beyond is also attainable.' ¶

Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) then stood among the people and said: 'The Hijaz is not a permanent home for you, except for seeking pasture, and its inhabitants cannot thrive solely upon it. Where are the Muhajirun (emigrants) who seek the promise of Allah? March into the land that Allah promised in the Book to grant you as an inheritance, for He said: {That He may make it (Islam) superior to all religions}. Allah is the One who will manifest His religion, honor those who aid it, and make His servants the inheritors of the nations. Where are the righteous servants of Allah?' The first to volunteer was Abu Ubayd ibn Mas'ud. ¶

It is also related in this context: When the gathering of the tribe of Bajila had assembled, Umar asked, 'Which front is most desirable to you?' They replied, 'The Levant (al-Sham), for our ancestors are there.' He said, 'Nay, go to Iraq, for there are already enough people in the Levant.' They kept insisting, and he kept refusing, until he resolved the matter and granted them a quarter of the khums (one-fifth) of the spoils (fai) that Allah bestowed upon the Muslims, in addition to their regular share of the spoils. ¶

It is worth noting that the Persian front was a vast front encompassing all the lands that were under Persian control, including those inhabited by Turkic and Armenian peoples in the north, such as Azerbaijan, Armenia, and the regions beyond them. ¶

That front was perpetually active, with wars following one another. Whenever a region was conquered, the kings of the regions behind it would mobilize their armies to halt the Islamic advance until they were subdued by force or by treaty. ¶

It should be noted that the peace treaties concluded between Muslims and others in those regions were of two types: ¶

- The First Type: Peace treaties based on annexing the territories to the Islamic State, and making its inhabitants—those among them who wished to remain in the land and retain their religion—subjects (ra'aya) of the Islamic State. They would hold what is known as 'Islamic citizenship' or allegiance, and thus be subject to the Islamic system implemented in the territory; they would have the same rights to justice as Muslims and the same obligations as Muslims. ¶

- The Second Type: Peace treaties based on maintaining the independence of the territories that chose to resort to peace rather than continue the war, and establishing an external peace treaty with the Islamic State under specific conditions. ¶

The Muslim commander—delegated by the Caliph—was the one who decided the type of peace treaty to be conducted in those fronts, according to his assessment of what the Islamic interest dictated, based on various considerations. ¶

In any case, the principle in the conquests on the Persian front was to adopt the procedure of annexing the territories to the Islamic State. Sometimes, resort was made to leaving the lands to their kings to govern according to their own systems, subject to specific conditions determined by the interest of the Islamic State. ¶

We will present below models representing the two mentioned types of peace treaties: 1 - Permanent Peace Treaties (Dhimma Contract): - It is stated in the History of al-Tabari that the region of 'Armenia' was under the control of a king from Persia named 'Shahrbaraz'. The general Islamic commander on that front was 'Suraqa ibn 'Amr', and under his command was a Companion (Sahabi), 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'ah al-Bahili'. 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'ah advanced deep into the territory controlled by King 'Shahrbaraz', and this king approached... ¶

Abdurrahman requested peace from him. Among the things the king said, as recorded in the History of al-Tabari, was: 'You have prevailed over my land and my people; so today, I am one of you, my hand is with your hands, and my inclination is with you. May Allah bless us and you. We will offer you the reward of victory and the fulfillment of what you desire; so do not humiliate us with the jizya (poll tax), lest you weaken us against your enemies.' Abdurrahman replied: 'Above me is a man (the Caliph) whose shadow covers you; go to him.' He proceeded to Suraqa and met him with a similar proposal. Suraqa said: 'I have accepted that for those who are with you, as long as they remain on these terms. However, jizya (the tax) must be paid by those who stay behind and do not rise to fight.' He accepted this, and it became a sunnah (precedent) for those among the mushrikeen (polytheists) who fought against the enemy, and for those who did not have the means to pay the jizya, provided they were summoned for service, in which case the jizya for that year was waived. Suraqa wrote to Umar ibn al-Khattab about this, and he approved and commended it. They drew up a document from Suraqa ibn Amr: ¶

'In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. This is what Suraqa ibn Amr, the deputy of the Commander of the Faithful, Umar ibn al-Khattab, has granted to Shahrbaraz, the inhabitants of Armenia, and the Armenians: an amnesty for their lives, their properties, and their religion. They shall not be harmed or suppressed. It is upon the people of Armenia, al-Abwab, and those around them, that they shall join every raid and carry out every task, whether related to war or otherwise, which the governor deems to be in the public interest. In exchange, the jizya shall be waived for those who respond to this call, except for the 'hashr' (military mobilization), which is a substitute for their jizya. As for those who are not needed and remain behind, they must pay the jizya, provide guidance, and offer hospitality for one full day, just as the people of Azerbaijan do. If they are mobilized, this obligation is lifted from them; if they are not, they are held to it.' ¶

Peace was concluded with Azerbaijan according to the text of the following document: 'In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. This is what Utbah ibn Farqad, the deputy of the Commander of the Faithful, Umar ibn al-Khattab, has granted to the people of Azerbaijan, all of them: an amnesty for their lives, their properties, and their religion.' ¶

And upon their religious laws, provided they pay the Jizya according to their ability. It is not imposed on a child, a woman, or a chronic invalid (1) who possesses no worldly wealth, nor on a secluded ascetic who possesses no worldly wealth. They are entitled to this, as are those who reside with them. It is incumbent upon them to host the Muslim soldiers for a day and a night, and to act as their guides. Whoever among them is called to serve in a year is exempted from the Jizya for that year. Whoever remains [in their land] is subject to the same terms as those who remain, and whoever departs is granted safe conduct until they reach their place of refuge (2). ¶

This relates to the peace treaty that dictates the entry of a country into the domain of the Islamic State and the entry of its people as 'Ahl al-Dhimmah' (protected subjects), citizens of the Islamic State. ¶

2 - As for the second type of peace treaty: those that stipulate the preservation of the country's independence. An example is what is mentioned in the History of al-Tabari: that 'Suwayd ibn Muqarrin' made a peace treaty of 'Muwa'ada' (non-aggression/peace) with the King of 'Tabaristan'. It is a treaty that demands that 'Tabaristan' remain an independent state from the Islamic State, linked to it by an external peace treaty based on specific conditions. This is the text of the document that recorded that treaty: ¶

'In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. This is a document from Suwayd ibn Muqarrin to the Farrukhan Ispahbad of Khorasan, over Tabaristan and Jil Gilan, from among the people of the enemy. ¶

You are safe under the protection of Allah, the Almighty and Majestic, on the condition that you restrain your thieves (3) and the people of your borders, that you do not harbor any fugitive from us, and that you pay to the one appointed over your borderlands five hundred thousand dirhams of your local currency. Once you do this, none of us has the right to raid you, interfere in your land, or enter upon you without your permission. Our passage through your land—with permission—is safe, and likewise is your passage. You shall not harbor any fugitive from us, nor shall you support an enemy against us, nor shall you act treacherously. If you do so, there is no treaty between us and you' (4). ¶

This is a model of the external treaties that Muslim commanders used to conclude with certain countries during the Islamic expansion in the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. ¶

Furthermore, these were some of the situations related to the Persian front regarding the mobilization of people, encouraging them to join, inviting the disbelievers on that front to Islam, and the agreements concluded there, which resulted in either the incorporation of those lands into the Islamic State or their retention of independence while maintaining a foreign peace treaty with the Muslims under specific conditions. Now, let us move to another front. ¶

2. The Byzantine (Roman) Front: These are also excerpts from the History of al-Tabari regarding the events and meetings that took place on the northern front between the armies of the Islamic da'wah and the Byzantine armies, which provide us with a picture of what was occurring on that front. ¶

- Muhammad ibn Ishaq reported: When Abu Bakr returned from Hajj in the year 12 AH, he prepared the armies for the Levant (al-Sham). He sent 'Amr ibn al-'As toward Palestine... and he sent Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah, and Shurahbil ibn Hasana. ¶

- Then, Abu Bakr urged the people to engage in jihad to reinforce those commanders whom he had sent to the Levant. Al-Tabari stated: "Abu Bakr stood before the people to deliver a sermon, praising and glorifying Allah, and invoking blessings upon His Messenger." - Among what he said was: "Behold, there is no religion for the one who has no faith, and there is no reward for the one who does not act solely for the sake of Allah (hasbah)... Behold, in the Book of Allah, the reward for jihad in the way of Allah is something a Muslim should desire to be favored with. It is the trade (bargain) to which He has guided, by which He saves from disgrace, and grants honor in this world and the Hereafter. Thus, he reinforced 'Amr with those who responded to the call and were gathered to him, and he appointed him as the commander over Palestine." - When the Byzantines learned of this, they wrote to Heraclius. Heraclius set out until he descended upon Homs, and he prepared armies for them. ¶

When the Muslims arrived at Yarmouk and sought reinforcements from Abu Bakr, he summoned Khalid from Iraq, urging him to hasten his journey. Khalid complied, arriving just as Bahan (the Byzantine commander) approached with his army. Bahan brought with him deacons, monks, and priests to incite and urge their soldiers toward combat. The arrival of Khalid coincided with the arrival of Bahan; Khalid took charge of the battle, and the Muslim commanders fought those opposite them, ultimately defeating Bahan. The Byzantines began a series of retreats, and the Muslims rejoiced at Khalid’s arrival. ¶

Regarding the Roman front in one of the battles, a Byzantine commander named Jarja requested a meeting with Khalid ibn al-Walid to learn more about the Muslims and the mission for which they fought. As recorded in the History of al-Tabari: 'O Khalid! Tell me, what do you invite me to?' He replied: 'To the testimony that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His servant and messenger, and to affirm what he brought from Allah.' He asked: 'And what if one does not accept?' Khalid replied: 'We notify them of war, then we fight them.' He asked: 'And what is the status of one who joins you and accepts this?' Khalid replied: 'Our status is one in what Allah has obligated upon us; our noble and our humble, our first and our last, are all equal.' He then turned his shield, sided with Khalid, and said: 'Teach me Islam!' ¶

Regarding Heraclius in the Levant, it was reported: 'Whenever Heraclius performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and left Syria, he would turn back and say: Peace be upon you, O Syria, the salutation of one departing whose desire remains unfulfilled, yet he expects to return! When the Muslims turned toward Homs, he crossed the water. As he departed toward Roman lands, he ascended a high place, looked back toward Syria, and said: Peace be upon you, O Syria, a farewell after which there shall be no meeting!' ¶

A Byzantine captive who escaped and reached him was asked about the Muslims. He replied: 'I will tell you as if you are looking at them: they are knights by day and monks by night.' ¶

They do not consume anything within their protection except by paying its price, they do not enter except with peace, and they remain steadfast against those who fought them until they overcome them. He said: 'If you have told me the truth, they shall surely inherit what is beneath these two feet of mine.' (1) ¶

These are glimpses from the Roman front. ¶

Let us move to a third front. ¶

3 - The front of Egypt and Nubia in southern Egypt: These are other excerpts that we quote from 'Al-Nujum al-Zahira' and 'Tarikh al-Tabari'. ¶

- It is stated in 'Al-Nujum al-Zahira': 'When Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) arrived at al-Jabiya (2), Amr ibn al-Aas (may Allah be pleased with him) came to him, spoke with him privately, and said: O Commander of the Faithful! Grant me permission to set out for Egypt. He encouraged him to do so, saying: If you conquer it, it will be a source of strength and support for the Muslims, and it is the land most abundant in wealth and the weakest in terms of defense. Umar ibn al-Khattab was apprehensive for the Muslims and disliked the idea, but Amr continued to emphasize its importance, describe its condition, and downplay the difficulty of its conquest until Umar was convinced, and he commissioned him with four thousand men, all from [the tribe of] Akk.' (3) (4). ¶

- '.. Then Amr proceeded towards Egypt. At that time, there was a Coptic bishop in Alexandria called Abu Mayamin. When the news of Amr's arrival in Egypt reached him, he wrote to the Copts of Egypt informing them that the Romans would no longer have dominion, that their rule had come to an end, and he ordered them to receive Amr. ¶

It is said that the Copts who were in al-Farma (5) were, on that day, helpers to Amr. Then Amr set out...' ¶

They can only be defended against with the lightest of means... A man from the Lakhm tribe heard a group of Copts saying to one another: 'Are you not amazed by these people? They are advancing against the multitudes of the Romans, even though they are few in number?' One of them replied: 'These people do not turn toward anyone without prevailing over them.' (1) ¶

It is recorded in the accounts of the conquests in Egypt that 'Al-Muqawqis' sent a delegation to 'Amr' (ibn al-Aas) to find out what the Muslims wanted from this war. 'Amr ibn al-Aas' said to the delegation: ¶

'There is nothing between me and you except one of three conditions: - Either you enter into Islam, becoming our brothers, and you shall have what we have; - If you refuse, you must pay the jizya while in a state of submission; - Or we shall engage in jihad against you with patience and combat until Allah judges between us and you, for He is the best of judges.' ¶

When the messengers of 'Al-Muqawqis' returned to him, he asked: 'How did you find them?' They replied: 'We found a people to whom death is more beloved than life, and humility is more beloved to them than status. None of them has any desire or greed for the world. They sit on the ground, eat on their knees, and their leader is just like one of them; one cannot distinguish their noble from their lowly, nor their master from their slave. And when the time for prayer comes, no one misses it.' Upon hearing this, Al-Muqawqis said: 'By the One by whom oaths are sworn, if these people were to face mountains, they would remove them! No one has the strength to fight these people!' (2) ¶

It is reported that 'Amr ibn al-Aas' sent a delegation to 'Al-Muqawqis' to meet with him, among whom was 'Ubada ibn al-Samit' (may Allah be pleased with him). Al-Muqawqis proposed a 'Sulh al-Muwada'a' (a peace treaty) to the Muslims, meaning a treaty that would maintain Egypt's independence from the Islamic state and prevent its conquest in exchange for a sum of money, instead of the 'Sulh al-Dhimma' (the treaty of protection) which requires the incorporation of Egypt into the Islamic state. Al-Muqawqis stated the following: ¶

'...And we are willing to settle with you on the condition that we impose for every man among you two dinars, and for your leader one hundred dinars, and for your Caliph one thousand dinars; you shall collect it and return to your lands...' ¶

Ubada said: 'O man! Do not deceive yourself or your companions.' He then presented to him the three options: either Islam, or Jizya (poll tax), or war! The matter concluded with the agreement to pay Jizya and to enter under the authority of the Muslims. ¶

Al-Muqawqis stipulated for the Romans that they be given a choice: whoever among them wishes to remain in their current state may do so, as a binding obligation upon them, for those who resided in Alexandria and its surrounding lands in Egypt. Whoever wished to leave for the Roman lands could do so. It was also stipulated that Al-Muqawqis reserved the option regarding the Romans specifically, until he could write to the King of Rome to inform him of what he had done; if the King accepted and consented to it, it would become binding upon them; otherwise, they would all remain in their previous state. ¶

Among the reports of the conquest of Egypt, it is also narrated that Amr ibn al-Aas said to the two envoys sent by Al-Muqawqis: 'Allah sent Muhammad with the Truth and commanded him with it, and Muhammad commanded us with it. Among what we were commanded is to establish the proof (al-i'dhar) to the people. We invite you to Islam; whoever accepts it is like us. Whoever does not accept, we offer him the Jizya and provide him protection (man'a). We have informed you that we are your conquerors, and we have been instructed to treat you well to honor the kinship we have with you. If you accept our terms, you shall have covenant upon covenant. Our commander has specifically instructed us: "Treat the Copts kindly," for the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) bequeathed kindness toward the Copts because they possess both a covenant and a kinship [with us].' They responded: 'This is a distant kinship known only to prophets! It is a noble and well-known one—meaning Hajar (peace be upon her), mother of Ismail ibn Ibrahim, father of the Arabized Arabs—she was the daughter of our king and was from the people of Memphis. The people of Ain Shams overcame them, killed them, seized their kingdom, and exiled them; that is why she [Hajar] went to Ibrahim (peace be upon him). You are welcome, and we grant you safe passage until we return to you.' Amr replied: 'Someone like me is not deceived, but I grant you a three-day grace period... otherwise, I will initiate combat.' They returned to Al-Muqawqis, but Artabun refused to accept their advice and ordered an attack. The elders among them said: 'You are fighting a people who killed Chosroes and Caesar and overcame them in their own lands!' Yet, Artabun persisted in his attempt to launch a surprise attack on the Muslims. ¶

They did so, but achieved nothing; in fact, a group of them was killed, including Artabun. Subsequently, they agreed to peace, the payment of jizya, and entering into the dhimmah (protection of the Islamic state), and Egypt was incorporated into the Islamic state. Among the accounts of the Egyptian front: "When the Muslims conquered Egypt, they raided the Nuba of Egypt. The Muslims returned having suffered wounds, and many lost their eyesight due to the enemy's expert archery, leading them to be called 'Ramah al-Hadaq' (Archers of the Eyes). When Uthman ibn Affan (may Allah be pleased with him) appointed Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh as governor of Egypt, he made a treaty with them that they would provide a specific number of heads (slaves/individuals) as a gift to the Muslims every year, and the Muslims would in turn provide them with a stipulated amount of food and clothing... Uthman and the governors and amirs after him upheld this peace, and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz confirmed it, considering the best interests of the Muslims and their preservation." This is what occurred on the Egyptian front and in Nuba to the south. Let us now move to another front. ¶

4 - The North African Front: It is mentioned in the book 'Riyad al-Nufus' that the Commander of the Faithful, Uthman ibn Affan, received word from his governor in Egypt, Abdullah ibn Sa'd, that the Muslims were raiding the outskirts of Ifriqiya (North Africa), inflicting losses on their enemy, and that they were close to the lands of the Muslims. Following this, Uthman ibn Affan expressed to Miswar ibn Makhrama his desire to send armies to conquer Ifriqiya. It states in this regard: "'What is your opinion, O Ibn Makhrama?' I said: 'Attack them.' He replied: 'Today, I will gather the senior companions of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and consult them; whatever they reach a consensus on, or whatever the majority agrees upon, I shall do... Go to Ali, Talha, al-Zubayr, al-Abbas,' and he mentioned other men. He met each one of them privately in the mosque, then he called for al-A'war (Sa'id ibn Zayd) and said to him: 'Why, O Abu al-A'war, did you dislike sending armies to Ifriqiya?' He replied: 'I heard Umar say: "I will not send any Muslim on that expedition as long as my eyes have moisture (i.e., as long as I am alive)." So I do not deem it proper for you to oppose Umar.' Uthman said to him: 'By Allah, we do not fear them, and they are content to remain in their lands and not be attacked!'" ¶

Thus, no one among those he consulted differed with him on it! He then addressed the people and exhorted them to go on the expedition to Ifriqiya (North Africa), so among the Sahaba (Companions) who went were Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari...(1). ¶

- Among the reports regarding the expedition to Ifriqiya, it is stated: "We stayed for several days, and messengers went back and forth between us and their king, 'Jarjir' (Gregory), as we invited him to Islam. Whenever we invited him to Islam, he would snort with disdain, become arrogant, and say: 'I will never do this.' So we said to him: 'Then pay the Jizya (tribute) every year.' He replied: 'If you were to ask me for a single dirham, I would not do it!' Thus, the people prepared for battle... Abdullah ibn Sa'd organized the ranks... We encountered the Romans, who had raised the cross and possessed weaponry that only Allah knows the extent of... The Muslims attacked them from every side, inflicting heavy casualties and taking many prisoners... When they were overwhelmed by the killing and captivity, they requested peace..."(3). ¶

Having said this, we move on to another front where the Sahaba fought during the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. ¶

5 - Cyprus: ¶

It is mentioned in Tarikh al-Tabari (The History of al-Tabari) among the events of the year 28 AH that: "Muawiyah wrote a letter to Umar regarding naval warfare, encouraging him toward it... So he wrote to 'Amr (ibn al-Aas): 'Describe the sea to me.'... He wrote back: 'O Commander of the Faithful! I have seen a great creature (the sea) being ridden by a small creature (a ship), where there is nothing but the sky and the water. They are like a worm on a piece of wood; if it tilts, it drowns, and if it survives, it is terrified!'"(4). ¶

- Among the words in the response of 'Umar to Muawiyah regarding this, it was stated: "By the One Who sent Muhammad with the truth, I will never put a Muslim on it (the sea) ever."(5) ¶

It is also narrated: 'By Allah! A single Muslim is dearer to me than all that Rome contains. Therefore, beware of provoking me, as I have already warned you'(1). ¶

- And regarding the reports of the conquest of Cyprus, the following is recorded: 'The first to wage jihad by sea was Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan during the time of Uthman ibn Affan... When Mu'awiyah invaded Cyprus, he made peace with its people... upon a tribute (jizya) of seven thousand dinars, which they would pay to the Muslims every year, and they would pay a similar amount to the Romans. The Muslims may not prevent them from paying that to them, provided that they do not attack them, and do not fight those behind them who might target them from their rear. They are obligated to inform the Muslims of the movement of their enemies from the Romans, and that the Imam of the Muslims shall facilitate access to them (in times of need)'(2). ¶

These were excerpts from the accounts of the Islamic conquests on various fronts surrounding the Islamic State. ¶

With this, we conclude the first issue of this research and proceed to the second issue. ¶

Second Issue: What has been said by Islamic writers regarding the motives for declaring jihad on all fronts during the era of the Rashidun. Many Islamic writers have addressed this topic, while discussing the objectives of the Islamic conquests and interpreting their rapid spread and expansion at the astonishing speed with which they were accomplished(3). ¶

What concerns us here regarding this topic is that which relates to the motives behind the declaration of jihad along the borders of the Islamic State, and the annexation of every state or province where the enemy was defeated into the Islamic State, which began to expand as a result of the movement of jihad that encompassed all fronts. ¶

This is what concerns us regarding the issue we are addressing, concerning the subject of Islamic conquests. We will present some of what has been said in this regard: - Colonel Muhammad Faraj, when discussing the reasons for Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) sending Muslim armies to the land of al-Sawad (Iraq), mentions several reasons related to our topic, which we summarize as follows(1): 1 - To keep the Arab tribes from fighting one another, as was their state during the Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era) in pursuit of their old vendettas, by directing their combat energies toward jihad against the disbelievers in a way that achieves good for Islam and the Muslims, instead of letting them annihilate one another. 2 - To reclaim the Arab lands within Iraq, lands that had been seized by the Persians in the past, and from which they had expelled their inhabitants from the tribes of Lakhm, Taghlib, Iyad, al-Namir, and Banu Shayban. 3 - To secure the Arabian Peninsula from the plots and aggression of the Persians. 4 - The delta(2) of the two rivers—the Tigris and the Euphrates—is full of agricultural and animal wealth. The Persian rulers monopolize these riches and leave the native Arabs nothing but scraps, so the Persians must be driven out so that the wealth of the land can be handed over to its Arab people! This is what Colonel Muhammad Faraj mentioned as motives for declaring jihad on the eastern front during the era of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him). - Umar Rida Kahhala(3) mentions what he sees as those motives in a general sense, citing the spread of Islam on earth, and the fertility of the lands possessed by the Persians and the Romans, such as Iraq, the Levant (al-Sham), and Egypt, while drought and poverty were widespread in the lands possessed by Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula. (1) The book 'Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha al-Shaybani' by Colonel Muhammad Faraj, pp. 63-64. (2) Delta: The name of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet (Δ). Geographers use it for areas situated between two or more branches of a river at its mouth because its shape resembles the aforementioned letter. (Al-Munajjid, Biographical Section). (3) The book 'Saif Allah Khalid ibn al-Walid' by Umar Rida Kahhala, p. 86. ¶

Sheikh Ali al-Tantawi(1) discusses the Islamic conquests, noting that the goal of all conquests in history has been to 'annex conquered lands to the possessions of the conquerors and to benefit from their resources.' The Islamic conquest, however, did not have this goal; rather, its objective was the propagation of Islam without compelling anyone to accept it. ¶

Similarly, Dr. Wahba al-Zuhayli addresses this subject, stating: 'The goal of the Islamic conquest, therefore, is not to annex countries to the Abode of Islam (Dar al-Islam) for economic greed, but rather to enable the acceptance of the Islamic call by repelling aggression—as was the goal of the wars against the Persians and the Byzantines—or to encircle the Byzantines and liberate the oppressed from the injustice of the Byzantines, such as the wars in Egypt and North Africa.'(2) ¶

These are some of the points mentioned by Islamic writers regarding the motives behind the Islamic conquest movement and the declaration of Jihad on all fronts of the Islamic state against its surrounding hostile states and territories. ¶

These motives can be summarized as follows: 1. The Economic Motive: Manifested in the poverty of the regions held by the Muslims, contrasted with the wealth of the regions held by Persia and Byzantium. 2. The Political Motive: Manifested in diverting Arab tribes from their ancient blood feuds, redirecting their combat energies away from internal conflicts, and channeling them toward the external enemy. 3. The Preventive and Defensive Motive: Represented by the Muslims attacking those surrounding them with the intention of defending the Islamic state against powerful adversaries. These adversaries fell into two categories: - Either they had previously committed acts of aggression against the Muslims. ¶

3. Or that the indicators suggest that had the Muslims not taken the initiative by attacking their enemies, those enemies would have been the ones to hasten to attack the Muslims. 4. The humanitarian motive: This is represented by liberating oppressed peoples from the tyranny of their despotic rulers, whether those rulers were from the local populace or strangers to them. 5. The liberation motive: This motive is seen in the recovery of Arab lands and their liberation from Persian and Roman occupation. 6. The religious motive: This motive is centered on the propagation of the Islamic Dawah (call). That is, the motive for declaring Jihad is to utilize it as a means for conquest (fath). The meaning of conquest, as is clear, is the annexation of conquered lands into the conquering state, considering them as one of its provinces, and applying the governing system of the mother country to the new province. Furthermore, this conquest itself is a means for spreading the Islamic Dawah, in the sense that the non-Muslims living under the Islamic system, seeing Islam alive in social relations and the community, manifested in the conduct of Muslims, in addition to verbal invitation and the clarification of Islam to them—all of this is likely to make them desire Islam and enter it. Imam al-Kasani states in Bada'i al-Sana'i: 'The People of the Book were left under the status of Dhimmah and the acceptance of Jizya, not out of desire for what is taken from them, nor greed for it, but for the sake of the call to Islam. This is so they may mix with the Muslims, contemplate the virtues and laws of Islam, and examine them; when they see that they are established upon what intellects can bear and accept, this will draw them toward Islam, and they will desire it. Thus, the Dhimmah contract was concluded in the hope of Islam.' (1) In conclusion, this is what has been said regarding the motives for declaring Jihad on all fronts during the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. We now proceed to the final issue of this research. ¶